The development of an English-Maltese assessment of speed of handwriting

Abstract

The aim of this study is to modify the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) (Barnett et al., 2007), a currently standardized English assessment that measures the handwriting speed of 14-15-year-old students, in order to identify students experiencing difficulties with handwriting speed, struggling writers and students who are at risk of writing disorders, namely dysgraphia. This novel assessment battery, termed the English Maltese Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (EMASH), can be used as a diagnostic tool by psychologists, occupational therapists, speech and language pathologists, as well as teachers. The aim is also to develop a parallel Maltese version, and to standardize both tests on Maltese students. Other research tools utilized in this study are a questionnaire to parents, and a questionnaire to form teachers, intended to determine the participants’ language practices at home and at school, respectively. A cross-sectional, quantitative research methodology was employed. A sample population of 401 students, in year 10 classes, in Malta and Gozo, took part in the study. This sample is stratified by School Type (state, church and independent), Gender and Ability. The independent variables of the study are First Language, School Language, Nationality, Ability, Geographical Regions, Socio Economic Status, School Type, Gender, Age, Handedness and Writing Style. Their effect on the 12 dependent variables of the study: English Copy Neatly, English Copy Quickly, English Copy from Board, English Free Writing, Total English Score, Maltese Copy Neatly (Ikkopja Pulit), Maltese Copy Quickly (Ikkopja Malajr), Maltese Copy from Board (Ikkopja mill-Bord), Maltese Free Writing (Kitba Kreattiva), Total Maltese Score, the Graphic Speed Test and Legibility, was studied. The variables that have an effect on writing speed in English and Maltese are Ability, First Language, SES, Geographical Regions, Gender and Writing Style. Additionally, School Type affects writing speed in English, and Age and Nationality affect writing speed in Maltese. This study identified the free writing subtest as the best predictor of writing speed. The study also determined if writing speed affects legibility. Results showed that in English and Maltese, legibility and speed are dependent on language, with the fastest writers in English being those participants whose written product included some words or phrases difficult to decipher. Conversely, the fastest writers in Maltese had overall clear and mature handwriting. The study helps identify areas that require attention by policy makers in order to improve literacy in schools, so that informed decisions may be made. When student performance on the English and Maltese assessment batteries were compared, it was found that students wrote faster in English than they did in Maltese. Hence the assessments batteries cannot be used interchangeably, as different norms apply. There were also some considerable differences between the standard scores of males and females, and hence separate norms for each gender were drawn. The EMASH proved to be a valid and reliable tool in measuring writing speed and identifying handwriting difficulties. The novel test helps identify struggling writers so that guided intervention can be targeted more closely to individual needs. Such intervention programmes could include activities intended to strengthen the muscles involved in handwriting and tailor-made intervention plans such as orthographic-motor integration programs that promote correct letter formation.