Gamification : a marketing strategy : empirical investigations in the context of physical activity

Abstract

Gamification is fast becoming a mainstay in marketing practice to enhance the service offering with game-like experiences, ostensibly to support the users’ value creation. However, understanding how gamification can lead to enhanced value remains incomplete. There is thus the need for rigorous empirical work to offer a comprehensive understanding on how and to what extent gamification can generate positive psychological and behavioural outcomes that support value creation. This thesis addresses this research gap, intent on extending our understanding on how gamification, as a tool, can be utilised as an engagement marketing effort to support value co-creation. By taking the case of physical activity as an instance of measurable behaviour change, this thesis examines how gamification can be utilised to create effective, engaging and meaningful experiences that facilitate positive outcomes. This thesis thus investigates i) the psychological and behavioural outcomes evoked using different design choices of gamification; ii) the resulting effect of the emotional, cognitive and behavioural manifestations on the individuals’ subjective well-being; and iii) the motivational affordances and underlying psychological processes through which gamified self-tracking experiences motivate users towards the desired behavioural change. The study draws from the self-determination theory and gamification design frameworks to explore how different designs of gamification influence the users’ motivation, behaviour change and well-being. Consistent with the critical realism philosophical stance, this thesis adopts a mixed methods research design involving three different research strategies. First, a purposely designed randomised controlled field experiment examined how the choice of competitive, cooperative and hybrid (competitive-cooperative) gamification designs affects users’ motivation, perceived usefulness of the experience and behavioural change. The data gathered included a panel dataset of step counts consisting of 2,240 observations over a four-week period, as well as self-reported data on the users’ emotional and cognitive psychological responses from a sample of 80 participants. Second, a longitudinal survey study (amongst the same participants) examined how subjective well-being is influenced by experiences of self-tracking and gamification of physical activity. Self-reported data on happiness and life satisfaction was gathered pre- and post-intervention. Third, a qualitative study helped gain a deeper insight into the gamification mechanisms and underlying psychological processes that fostered motivation towards physical activity behaviour. Focus groups and one-to-one interviews were conducted involving 58 participants. Results show that gamification leads to a behavioural change in physical activity. All groups treated with gamification recorded an increase in physical activity. The hybrid design using an inter-team competition is considered as an optimal design that leads to the highest increase in step counts. While the use of gamification stimulates the desired behavioural change, the psychological responses to gamification (albeit positive) are not significantly different to a non-gamified self-tracking experience at the end of the intervention period. Both gamified and non-gamified self-tracking experiences evoke similar positive psychological responses, yielding similar gains in well-being. Specifically, enjoyment and interest (hedonic benefit) enhance happiness levels, whereas perceived usefulness of the experience (utilitarian benefit) enhances life satisfaction levels. The change in physical activity behaviour however is not linked to the increase in well-being. The key factors that foster motivation towards physical activity include personal goal setting, immediate and regular feedback, social comparison, competitive and cooperative elements, a sense of community spirit, gratifying rewards and enticing new experiences. By contrast, anonymity, lack of social interaction and weak group cohesion are perceived as limiting factors. The underlying emotions, feelings and cognitive processes that encourage users to engage in physical activity are compatible with the core constructs of the self-determination theory. This thesis suggests that gamification can support a marketing strategy in the pursuit of value creation on three levels: i) behavioural, ii) experiential and iii) social. First, the results indicate that using gamification as a stimulus begets the desired behavioural change in the short-term. Second, at an experiential level, insights gained from the participants’ subjective experiences suggest that gamification could influence motivation and enhance users’ experience by providing a gratifying experience. This gratifying experience supports empowerment, autonomy, competence, progress, achievement and social relatedness. Empirical evidence from this thesis supports the theoretical prediction that experiences that foster intrinsic motivation and autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation enhance well-being. However, there is a need to understand better how gamification can elicit stronger psychological responses. A critical reflection on the unintended consequences and ethical implications is also necessary. Third, insights emerging from this thesis suggest that social-oriented gamification features contribute to value co-creation by facilitating a sense of relatedness and connectedness with others. In conclusion, this thesis extends our understanding of how gamification can be effectively used to contribute to the ultimate goal in the realm of marketing, that of supporting value co-creation.